Rohingya Crisis, A History of Injustices, Origins and Deprivation

• Aims and Objectives
  The research paper aims to investigate and explore the historical background and origins of the Rohingya and their prolonged crisis, and the paper will also focus on the political ideologies of Myanmar’s governments to deprive the basic rights including citizenship rights, of the Rohingya ethnic group. The objectives of the research paper include an analysis of the Rohingya historical narrative identifying the root causes of the Rohingya crisis and their persecution, injustices and examining the ideologies of exclusion of the Rohingya from citizenship rights. And the timelines of the repeated exodus of the Rohingya from their original homeland and their marginalization.
• Abstract
  The Rohingya crisis, mass persecution and displacement of the Rohingya population in Arakan State of Myanmar, which interplays in the historical, ethic and political dimensions. This research paper examines the root causes of the Rohingya crisis and their historical presence in Arakan State, and their continuous struggles for official recognition from the Myanmar government for decades. The 1982 citizenship law is fully institutionalized discriminatory and deprivation of the basic rights including citizenship rights of the Rohingya minority people that leads to the highest stateless population in the world. The paper further explores the ongoing violence and 2017 genocidal acts against Rohingyas in Arakan State that promotes the significant exodus to the neighboring countries. This study aims to provide the comprehensive findings and understanding of Rohingya crisis to the readers.
• Introduction
  Rohingya crisis is the worst humanitarian disaster of the current century, rooted in decades and building a complex history. The Rohingya population, a predominantly Muslim ethnic minority group native at Arakan (Rakhine) State in Myanmar, have faced a systematic discrimination, institutionalized persecution and marginalization their rights including citizenship status since earlier of independence of Myanmar nation state. The origin of the Rohingya crisis can be found back to the colonial and post-colonial policies that have exacerbated ethnic tensions, nationalism and identity crisis in the country after gaining independence from Britain in 1942. The legislative action and amendment of citizenship law of 1982, deprived the Rohingya of their legal rights, made them stateless and subjected to immense violence. As a result of due to this historical injustice, the Rohingya have faced numerous violence and suffered social and economic tensions and political deprivation, particularly the military ethnic cleansing operation and genocidal acts against Rohingya population in 2017 led to mass displacement. This paper seeks to analyze the historical elements to a contextual framework of the ongoing crisis.
• Methodology
  This research paper will discuss the history of the Rohingya crisis: origins and deprivation. In this research paper, has used the optimal techniques to study the underlying hypotheses and follow-up research questions. The methodology of this research paper will allow readers to find accurate information related to the research topic. In this research, used both quantitative and qualitative data to enhance, promote and achieve better results in the paper. Quantitative data are collected by arranging interviews with community individuals. Qualitative data are collected from articles, books, journals, research portals, and websites and media news.

Discussion

• Rohingya Historical Background and their status in Arakan State In Myanmar, there are 135 ethnic groups except the minority Rohingya and there are eight key different races such as Rakhine, Mon, Chin, Shan, Kayah, Burma, Kayin and Kachin. In the world, Myanmar’s the least economically developed country despite for being a wealthy enough with natural resources even a quarter of the population is in destitution due to the ongoing civil war. A country lost its independence due to the three Anglo Burmese Wars and for independence, they are sacrificing both lives and blood. After in 1948 independence, The Burma military (Tatmadaw) has confiscated the power in 1962 according to the strategic policies of BSPP call (Burma Socialist Program Party). In Myanmar the political transition is not miserable according to the appearance to the contrary. Moreover, for the democratization, observers and activists deal with a broader range of strategies (2017). According to the road mad of democracy the political activity has been seen flurry during the past year. Based on the sanctions that the course of events might be continued by the dictatorship military junta. In one of two ways of the democratization, the regime has been generally reacted by the opposition groups like Myanmar’s boycotting politics or looking for some room under the forums of government that in 1960 and served entrenched military government better than it has raising marginalized hostility forces. The groups opposition tries to set up a more accountable government in Yangon and to change the regime according to their focused. Based on such kinds of approaches statement that is shared by the military regime which is the political transition in Myanmar have to come from the top of directed by the central government. Whether revolutionary urgently required while change the level of national, sustained democracy transition can be attained if accomplished by the local participation. The most crucial ethnic communities in Myanmar the past decades but under the analysis of the social and political situation.

Fortunately, Burma obtained Independence from British January 4, 1948. In this period, the prime minister U Nu recognized the Rohingya as citizens of Burma and provided National Identification Cards (NID). After that, the Rohingya could go anywhere to study higher education, they could study, and become Health ministers, Police makers, doctors, parliamentary members, etc, according to Khair Hossain (Rohingya community leader). The General Ne Win seized power in 1962 which became a terrible time for Rohingya as he utilized multiple tactics. Such as he ordered to conduct an operation called Operation Dragon King in 1977 which resulted 200,000 Rohingya to flee toward Bangladesh in May, 1978 as this operation contained torturing, rape, killing, etc. Hence, the Rohingya fled in Bangladesh in that time where they faced myriad plights with foods, water, shelters, etc. Majority of the Rohingya were repatriated at the end of 1978, according to Human Rights Watch. According to Kaiser, General Ne Win constituted the 1982 Citizenship law by rejecting the Rohingya and recognized 135 ethnics. Absolutely, this law was created by prejudicing the Rohingya with religion. As Rohingya ethnic has been deprived from citizenship rights, Rohingya could not go anywhere to visit outside or inside of the country. For instance, the Rohingya who had gone in foreign countries to earn finance for 2 or 3 years, they could not return to their houses and other who were inside of the country, they could not go from districts to states and the Rohingya youths could not study higher education like Bachelor, Master and Ph.D degree and could not engage in job facilities to manage their livelihoods. In other words, the Rohingya would manage from Agricultural areas, shops and Paddy fields. For paddy-fields, the Rohingya people would bestow the taxes to the local administrators which were burden. Undoubtedly, the Rohingya were dwelling there like jail, mean no peace and jubilant, he added.

• What are the root causes of the Rohingyas Crisis and their institutionalized persecution in Arakan?
  Rohingyas, a Muslim ethnic minority group in Arakan state of Myanmar and living for decades in the Arakan region. There are 136 ethnic groups including Rohingya in Myanmar but not recognized the Rohingya as an ethnic group legally by the national government. This ethnic group have been facing systematic oppressions, violence, genocide and persecution, and even denial of citizenships, and prohibition of higher education accessibility for the Rohingya after the 2012. The root causes of the Rohingya crisis and their institutionalized persecution in Arakan that committed by Myanmar’s government hold numerous factors.
  According to Boni Amin, The Rohingya minority has faced systematic persecution and religious discrimination inflicted by the Buddhist community and brutal government of Myanmar against the Rohingya people. As a predominantly Buddhist country, a systematic genocidal operation was carried out by military junta and other nationalists who hold power within the state government.
  After the declaration of 1982 Citizenship Law, which is mainly created to render the identities of the Rohingya Muslims. The Rohingya have faced some very restrictive rules on freedom of movement, transportation, formal education, sanitation and other basic needs which are necessary for a human being. Rohingya were not allowed to move from one place to another town and needed permission from government authorities even to visit relatives. Rohingya lives were like hell and left everyone stateless and hopeless.
  As Rohingya are a Muslim minority in the whole Arakan State, they have faced religious hatred and discrimination, the Myanmar’s military along with other citizens perpetrated the Rohingya Muslim because they follow other religion and torture them everywhere they used to go and deprived our rights and made every individual stateless and their unimaginable discrimination forced thousands and thousands of Rohingya to flee from Myanmar to the neighboring country, Bangladesh.
  Military has played a very crucial role in implementing the rights of the Rohingya people. As the core pillars of power in Myanmar, the Rohingya people were not permitted to travel from one town to another. They denied the rights of the Rohingya people and threatened them to leave their homes. The continuity of their ruling led to national corruption and external conflicts.
  Myanmar has been a country where there are conflicts and wars. Since it got independence from Britain in 1948, the national policy and strategies were weak and cruel but the attempts from the international community have been less leading to widespread violence and discrimination. Despite numerous evidence and condemnation, the international community hasn’t come with sustainable solution to this prolong crisis and this agenda allowed the brutal government of Myanmar to continue committing genocide against the Rohingya people.
• What ideologies are using the Myanmar government to deprive citizenship of Rohingya? The Rohingya population, have been facing the continuous discrimination, deprivation and institutionalized persecution since earlier of the independence of Myanmar. From the beginning of Burmese independence, Myanmar introduced various types of citizen cards since 1989 and 1992 such as White Cards (WC), National Verification Cards (NVCs) and Green cards and so on. These cards are available for blue and adapted citizens for pink, collaborative citizens for full citizens. Jobs, business. These cards can be used for types of activities framework, including study-related activities. But Rohingya are not given any kind of card freedom and independence cards by Myanmar government which can be used everywhere and for everything in Myanmar by Rohingya Muslims.
  During facing challenges, the Rohingya community has found it difficult to survive in Myanmar without a national identity card since 1994, the Rohingya children are able to go anywhere. After a couple of years, The Myanmar government closed the birthmark after the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) the initiative to enroll the Rohingya started in 1995. At the time, the white card is given to Rohingya, where birthplace and the date were not written. As a matter of fact, this card does not prove Myanmar’s citizenship and does not have any work for Rohingya. After a few years the government also closed the card. The names of the Rohingyas are kept in the list of Nasaka forces their separate identity was recognized by the democratic government of Premier U Nu (1948–1962).
  Their situation worsened after the military Junta takeover in 1962 leaving then subject to humiliating restrictions and harsh treatment by the State. However, the Burma 1982 Citizenship Law institutionalized the Rohingya statelessness. This argues that despite all evidence as indigenous people of Arakan, the ethnic Muslim minority Rohingya are arbitrarily deprived of their citizenship. The Burmese are adamant that the Rohingyas are Bengalis regardless of their residency history and therefore belong in Bangladesh. Their Islamic religion and Indo-Aryan appearance do not conform to the “Burmese citizenship standard”. In this context, Burma/Myanmar citizenship law fails to meet the international standard. Rohingya ancestry related documents prove that the government enacted the new law simply to deny the Rohingya identity.
• The timelines of the Rohingya displacement and exclusion from Myanmar’s Citizenship right? Myanmar (formerly Burma) achieved independence on 4 January 1948 by following an agreement between British prime minister Clement Attlee and Burmese first president U Nu, so called Nu-Attlee agreement, which is signed on 17 October 1947. The article 3 of Nu-Attlee agreement identified Rohingyas as bona fide citizens of Myanmar. Burmese Prime Minister U Nu also granted area status “Mayu Frontier Administration” (MFA), where Rohingyas were dominant to northern Arakan. Some Rohingya leaders carried out the duty as Parliament members during U Nu’s administration. One of Rohingya Parliament member was Sultan Mahmud, the health minister from 1960 to 1962 under the U Nu administration.
  On 2 March 1962 general Ne Win led a military coup which resulted the overthrow the government of prime minister U Nu and increased of ethnic discrimination. His administration banned all the political parties including (MFA) except the Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP). In 1965 the military government revoke the Rohingya language broadcast program of Burmese broadcast service. In 1974, a new constitution created by military regime, which recognized 135 races but excluded Rohingya because of this Rohingya became immigrants in their motherland. In 1978, King Dragon operation, officially known as NAGAMIN operation, was a military operation against Rohingya minority with false allegation that they are illegal immigrants. On 6 February 1978, Tatmadaw launched the operation with immigration officials and some Rakhine civilians which resulted thousands of were arrested including woman with pregnancy, old man and children. Many of them died in concentration camps, woman was raped and finally they were jailed.
  The exile of the Rohingya is attributed to a blend of political and historical realities that stretches across decades of Myanmar’s colonial past, post-colonial state building, and entrenched state policies. British Colonization of Burma in the period of 1824-1948, the expansion of Britain into Burma led to an increased influx of labor from Bengal to be used in agriculture in Arakan (now referred to as Rakhine State). While the British engineers regarded such migrants as subjects of their empire, the indigenous Rakhine ethnic group saw them as interlopers into their territory. During independence of Myanmar in 1948,Rohingya people were recognized as citizens of Myanmar, including a few elected representatives from Rohingya ethnic minority.
  The Military Junta led by the General Ne Win 1962-1988, fully supported the nationalist sentiment and Buddhist ethnic groups and deprived Rohingya citizenship. Bangladesh Refugee crisis occurred in 1978, the military campaign aimed at “illegal aliens” which coproduced extreme humanitarian violence and the subsequent first major refugee crisis during which more than 200,000 were forced to seek asylum in Bangladesh. After the revision of 1982 citizenship law, the Rohingya nationality was stripped off as this law prohibited them from being recognized as part of an ethnic group in Myanmar. It required proof of ancestors existing well before 1823 which the majority of the Rohingya could not substantiate due to poor records. Thus, they ended up being rendered stateless. The crackdown of 1991-1992, which marked a period of yet another operation by the military which resulted in a new wave of displacement. Another communal violence occurred against Rohingya in 2012, which was committed by the Buddhist community and the Military Junta that led to further displacement both internally and externally, putting several thousands in miserable encampments.
  In 2017, a largest genocide campaign led by the Myanmar’s Government against the Rohingya population. The brutal suppression of Rohingya people followed murder, rape and set fire to villages after the resulted in more than 700,000 Rohingya people running away to Bangladesh. In 2024, the war ongoing between Arakan Army (AA) and the Myanmar national defense forces which resulted the Rohingya people facing the violence gain and displaced 80000 people to Bangladesh. The Torture and discrimination of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar persimmon back to a minimum the 1970s. Since then, the Rohingya people have been oppressed on a constant ground by the government and Buddhist nationalists. The UN (2016, 2017, and 2018) observed proof of ample-strip human rights violations, including extrajudicial Murder; summary executions, gang rapes, arson of Rohingya villages, businesses, and schools, and infanticide (the crime of killing a child within a year of its birth) At least 6,700 Rohingya were killed in the first month of attacks, between 25 August and September 24, 2017.
• Conclusion
  In conclusion, the Rohingya crisis is a complex issue which rooted in the historical marginalization of Rohingya rights and their institutionalized persecution and discrimination in Arakan state Myanmar. The institutionalized persecution led to ethnic tensions and using policies to deprive their basic rights including citizenship right. The military junta using different ideologies of nationalism and ethnic superiority to systematically deprive the citizenship right of Rohingya ethnic group, and framing the illegal migrants. The violence occurred against Rohingya population since for decades and made significant exodus and displacement in both internally and externally. Due to the institutionalized persecution, discrimination, violence and even genocidal acts against Rohingya that leads to many times displacement such as in 1978, 1991, 2012, 2016, 2017 and 2024. This paper examines that addressing the historical background and narratives, injustices, discrimination and marginalization and the ideologies of perpetrators. Ultimately, the dilemma of the Rohingya needs urgent human rights and international intervention and accountability to safeguard and restore the rights and dignity of the Rohingya in Arakan state of Myanmar.

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Appendices
Kaiser (Site Support Management Volunteer), Phone No: +880 1608-236478)
Khair Hussain (Rohingya Community elite)
Boni Amin (A committee member in camp & administrator in Myanmar), Phone No: +8801604634526, Email address: aminboni338@gmail.coming